Contemporary issues in business (DEBENHAMS) Essay

Contemporary issues in business (DEBENHAMS) - Essay ExampleAccording to the union reports, it has acquired enhanced trade contribution pertaining to womens wear along with mens wear, whereas in relation to childrens wear it has acquired considerably less amount of market share as it stood at the tenth position. The company since 20 years as an open system is investing in British design pertaining to its exclusive designers. In the year 2012, the company had been awarded Multichannel Retail award (Debenhams Retail plc, 2001). This report intends to discuss the external drivers of change that lays a greater furbish up on the companys operations. Moreover, the probable negative forces to change will also be recognised in the report in keeping with Debenhams present operational environment. 2.0 Todays Drivers of Change PESTEL Analysis of Debenhams Retail firmament frames an important part of the United Kingdoms economy. Drivers of change are applied to derive information regarding t he companys operational activities. These factors remain external but create a major impact on the organisational operations. This segment of the study will focus on the drivers that foster changes within the retail sector of the UK. Moreover, the implications of these drivers result in internal change within Debenhams as well. The demographic scenarios, the influence of globalisation of the current UK industrial sector and the advanced technical changes have laid a major influence on the retail industry as well. 2.1 Political In nightspot to ensure a competitive analysis of Debenhams within the UK, it is necessary to assess the environment within which the company is presently operating. It has been observed that the retailers are greatly affect by one of the decisive drivers of change i.e. the political structure along with trends in numerous ways. The political influence is essentially created on the retail sector by the power exerted by the politicians pertaining to locations. In the UK, these politicians exert power by on the basis of the land-use planning system. In this context, the mentioned particular system is in general about the planning developed by the local authorities. In keeping with these particular activities, government has power to intervene in order to provide burster and guidance regarding the development and opportunities along with proposals (IMI, 2010). Moreover, it has been assumed that regulations prevailing within the UK industrial sector focus mainly on training. In this regard, training expenses act as a driving force within the UK retail sector. Therefore, Debenhams needs to comply with training requirements and regulations to operate within the UK sector. In terms of regulations and governmental impact, it can be noted that in the UK, there are certain national policies being framed on skills and education. These particular national policies lay a major impact on the sector related to skills demand along with supply. Availa bility of

Interview an entrepreneur or small business owners Assignment

Interview an entrepreneur or small military control owners - Assignment ExampleIt integrates a comparison of my theoretical learning near entrepreneurship and the practical application of the theory in the business world. The reports reflects upon how entrepreneurs face failure initially and then they become successful. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY The entrepreneur I interviewed is a young cook, who has opened up her own business of do-to-order fancy cakes and pastries. At the age of 23 years, Maham Baber began her business inspired by a fewer fancy birthday cakes she observed. Being a food fanatic and her passion for cooking and baking, she decided to open up a small business of made-to-order fancy home sweets of all kinds. Before opening her new business she took a few essential basic baking courses of professional baking. Based in her home town of Lahore, Pakistan, her business has flourished immensely over the past two years of the companys existence. The name of her bakery is F iesta Designer Cakes n Pinatas. Currently she workings solo in the preparation of ordered sweets. The product offering includes spring cakes, desserts and pinatas. Each of these categories are available in legion(predicate) flavours. Cakes are custom made mainly fondant cakes with designs according to the customers requirements. Desserts include all kinds of sweets like cupcakes, brownies, eclairs, macaroons, fruit and carrot cakes, moose, caramel crunch and tiramisu. Recently Fiesta has introduced a new variant to the business named Oh Ohs, which are chocolate coated cream filled rolls. The company takes orders through a Facebook page. Since its a young organization, it does not have a proper website as yet. However, the company works professionally as the orders are taken a week earlier and delivered to customers on the deadline. Sometimes the orders are picked by customers themselves from the owners residence. At the inception of the business, the entrepreneur had to face cer tain challenges. For the initial few months, her business was running at a loss since at the time the demand for such(prenominal) fancy products was minimal. The product used to prepare the cakes were expensive as at times imported products were used which are usually expensive. She practically created the demand for designer cakes and other such sweets which took her more than an year. Moreover, her only communication was through Facebook which meant initially she was unable to reach her potential customer base. Also, since she took only a few courses in the beginning before starting, she had some cake and sweet disasters in the beginning which increased her cost immensely. One other main challenge was to convince customers to interpret out her product. This required good marketing skills which she lacked and hence gaining loyal customers was an extremely difficult phase for the entrepreneur. ANALYSIS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL CHARACTERISTICS As an entrepreneur, there are numerous charac teristics which she embodies in her work and these entrepreneurial characteristics are the key to her immense success in just two years of the business operations. However, her working solo on the orders hinders her way of developing some of the most essential entrepreneurial characteristics. Like every successful entrepreneur, Fiestas owner loves her work. Her passion for baking is what led her to

Poland Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Poland - Essay ExampleThe national language of Poland is civilisation and its quantity covered area is around 312,685 sq Km. (Poland Introduction, 2001)Poland is known as the most religious country of Europe. About 90% of the total population is the Roman Catholic, while Protestants, Jehovahs witnesses, Polish Orthodox, Polish Catholics, Muslims and Jews are in minorities. The Eastern Orthodox are 1% of the total population while Protestants are 0.3% and others are 0.8% according to an estimation do in 2002. The last pope of the Roman Catholic church Pope John Paul II also belongs from Poland - before the Pope Benedict. The Roman Catholic religion is dominated in the country and it is also a part of the curriculum - in the education sector. (Religion in Poland, 2008)Economically, Poland is a sound country and developing day by day. The Polands Gross Domestic Product (GDP) increased 6.1% in 2006. After the rejection of communism, Poland adopted the policy of liberalism which succe ssfully worked and supported the economy to rise. The liberal laws helped in the development of the private sector and many medium and small industries were privatized. Several important sectors were also privatized including steel, coal, railway and power generation. In the year 2000, the national telecom was also privatized and sold to France which is considered as the biggest privatization ever made, by the year 2007. Main Industries include mining, textile, shipbuilding, glass and beverages. With the growing GDP rate since 1993, Poland has potential to become largest food for thought producer among the European Union countries in agriculture sector. Various private farms are producing fruits, vegetables and specially potatoes. Poultry, eggs, and pork are also monitored by the alike farms. The notes of Poland is called Zloty. Poland is continuously bringing reforms in its economic policies to fulfill the criteria of adopting euro (European single currency). It is said that by 2012, Poland will be able to adopt euro. In Poland, salaries are low and the ratio of unemployment is high, one of the reason is the economic crises in the Soviet Union and Germany (the biggest trade partners of Poland). People have started to move to other European Union countries largely to UK and Ireland. With the continuous reforms it is expected that soon this problem will also be overcome. (Diziadosiz and Stasiak, 2004)Role of WomenDuring the era of 1970, the work force of Poland basically comprises of women. Poland government gave more opportunities to distaff in education and employment. In many major professions, the rate of women was higher than men. During 1980, most of the medical practitioners were women. On the other hand, women were kept completely at utter from the posts of power and authority. However, Poland elected its first Prime Minister, Hanna Suchocka in 1992, but the interesting fact is that there was not a single woman in her government. During the same year another woman, Eva lelowska became the head of the National Bank of Poland. Though, women played remarkable role on all the labor positions but male dominance evermore remain hurdle for them to reach and gain higher positions. State institutions helped many women to do two full time jobs due to the lack of their

Work Stress Essay Example for Free

Work Stress EssayWe live with it, deal with it, and above either worry about it. Our way of manners, the bea in which we live, the economy, and our wrinkles place convey a great deal of song. Not e preciseone deals with the same level of stress and thither be several factors that bathroom impact our lives and cause us to put on higher or first baseer stress levels. We can spend a penny accented caused by Cataclysmic neverthelessts which according to Feldman (2009) are events that can affect m whatsoever people at the same time and are disasters such as tornado and rake crashes, as well as terrorist attacks. (p418). Other factors are personal stressors and can be caused by events such as a divorce, death or a loved one or the loss of a job. (Feldman, 2009).The other category is what Feldman (2009) refers to as background stressors and are the things that impact our daily life history. South Florida has many factors that add up to our stress level, high unemployme nt rate 12.1% , high number of families living in p all overty approximately 16%, (U.S. Census Bureau, American Fact Finder at (http//factfinder.census.gov), a caparison crisis that has contributed to many residents losing their star signs, overcrowded thoroughfares, high crime rate, and during hurricane season the weather.When we compare ourselves with people living in smaller cities, villages, other areas of the country or even other countries, or those whose socio economic status allows them to maintain their life style during difficult economic times we could probably see a difference in the stress level. Who has non stressed over driving in the Palmetto or I-95. Who has not stressed over the evening news or the possibility of not having a job in very difficult economic times? Who has not stressed over the possibility of being affected by the housing crisis? Who does not stress over a situation at work over which we wipe out no get the hang? These are stressors we live w ith and deal with on a daily basis.Work Stress and Mental HealthSome people hurl higher levels of stress because they might have a very stressful job. Police officers, fire fighters, soldiers in a war zone, health care interpretrs, long distance truck drivers, and yes, even educators (think of a classroom ripe of students where you are responsible for making sure that they are learning the skills they indispensableness to succeed) have very stressful jobs. According to Elkin and Rosch (1990) workplace related stress in a major problem in the U.S. and it creates a major expense for corporations. Koeske, Kirk, and Koeske (1993) indicate that all jobs have some level of stress but jobs that are in the human services have additional stressors because they derive from intense involvement in the lives of others. (p.319). They also refer to the type of stress experienced by souls working in human services as burnout (Koeske, Kirk, and Koeske, 1993, p.319). Another factor that can infl uence our stress level is how we handle lifes demands. on that point are different ways of reacting to the situations we face every day of our lives. We have all heard of expressions such as road rage and going postal. These are terms that we have come to identified with violent reactions to stressors caused by situations all of us face every day. How many of us have experiences in the road that would cause us to dis work out behavior that is outside of what we consider to be within a normal range? How many of us have had experiences at work with a supervisor or a coworker where we have had to use all of our self control not to respond in an clutch manner? We all have had these experiences and how we handle them depends on different factors such as our own characteristics, or external factors that could be impacting us at any particular moment. Symptoms of stress and anxiety caused by workAccording to Tetrick and LaRocco (1987) work conditions can lead to perception of stress. Per ceived stress, in turn, leads to job-related strains such as dissatisfaction, boredom, and turnover, and to individual strains such as anxiety, depression, and physical illness (p.538). There are other factors that can cause high level of stress in a job for example high demands on the part of an employer, (i.e. constant deadlines, extended work hours) and low control on the part of the employee (i.e. very little control over the day to day activities in the workplace) and low rewards for effort can increase the chances of having serious health problems such as anxiety, use of prescription or over the counter drugs to deal with stress. (Workplace Mental Health Promotion, 2010). According to Tetrick and Larocco (1987) in addition to these external factors related to our jobs and the type of work conditions we have we also have intimate factors that they call internal characteristics (i.e., personal characteristics) and external conditions (i.e., situational characteristics) (p. 358) .Pachner (2010) stated that In response to beliefs of insecurity or ineffectiveness many people can avoid companionable interactions with colleagues and can develop physical symptoms such as headaches, insomnia, high blood pressure and even heart attacks. Many of us have experiences these types of feelings or reactions when we have found ourselves in stressful jobs. These health related issues can impact the individual, his/her family, the workplace environment and the community in general. Higher costs for health care, incidents of road rage or workplace violence, as well as in some instances domestic violence can all be linked to stressed caused by work. Individuals at risk of experiencing conditions of stress and anxiety As indicated before most of us are at risk of experiencing stress and a burnout feeling at any time.Those of us who are in the fields where we deal with people or a daily basis or where high demands and where we have little control of our work environment go a way be more impacted than others. Additionally as mentioned before certain type of personality characteristics will increase or levels of stress. Some of the internal characteristics might be our way of handling difficult situations, our need to control our environment, our need to over strike, even our need to please others. Some individuals have a need to have control over all aspects of their lives and when decisions are made by others and they have no control over these decisions it impacts their well being.Stressful jobs such as those involving high risk or oneself, i.e. law enforcement, military duty in a war zone, can cause higher level of stress. Jobs where demands are placed in our abilities to deal with others can also create stress, i.e., healthcare professionals, customer service personnel, teachers, and other professionals who deal instantaneously with others. The stress caused by these types of jobs can influence our health, our attitudes, and even our home life. In many instances individuals do not have the opportunity to decompress before arriving home to deal with the other stressors that we all confront. When we leave our jobs we then need to face the different challenges surrounding us in our community i.e. traffic, weather, etc.Dealing with stress and anxietyAccording to Elkin and Rosch (1990) To prevent burnout individuals need to monitor their mental and physical health and maintain a healthy lifestyle that includes a healthy diet, vacuous time and connecting with family and friends. All of us need to understand the importance of maintaining a healthy equilibrium between work and our own personal life. Giving in to the demands of a stressful job can only serve to create additional health problems such as heart conditions, high blood pressure, habituation on over the counter, illegal, or prescription drugs. It will also contribute to other problems such as lack of sleep, isolation, and sometimes depression. Perhaps we need to spright liness at how other societies live their daily lives. For example traveling in the Mediterranean, specially the Greek islands, can control you a different perspective of how life can be. The Greek Islands have a low rate of heart disease and having traveled there myself I can see how their lifestyle contributes to that low risk.They are very active and involved in activities that promote healthy lifestyles i.e. fishing. They eat healthy and most of the time is food that is prepared in a healthy way. They take time to rest during the day and they take the time to enjoy family and friends and establish social connections. We, on the other hand, because of our work schedules, the time it takes us to get to and from work, the demands we place on ourselves, rarely have time to socialize and spend time with family or friends. Perhaps corporations should take into consideration the need to provide time for employees to establish relationships at work that are not just work related but tha t go beyond the routine of the workplace. Encouraging employees to have an active life style would also help the stress since physical activity issues stress level.Having a good health insurance that promotes healthy life style such as by encouraging preventing medicine and membership in health clubs will contribute to reduce the stress level. We also need to take proactive steps to reduce the stress level caused by our jobs. One of the steps we can take is to accept that our personality can play a major role on how we adapt and deal with the job demands and take steps to change the extra stress we create for ourselves. If we like to control what we do at all times and like to plan ahead for all events but work in a job that is constantly changing we can begin by accepting that we can control the time we leave for work, what we take for lunch, and what route we take to get to and from work and that will give us a sense of control for at least part of the day.If we like to achieve perfection or please those around us we can begin by establishing realistic goals that we can achieve every day rather than trying to be the best in all possible aspects. reasonableness ourselves, our needs, our personality, and the demands of our jobs can help us to decrease the level of stress we experience. There are factors over which we have no control i.e. the crime rate in our area, the weather, the overcrowded highways, etc. However we can certainly control other aspects of our lives such as how we handle the demands of our job, the type of lifestyle we choose to live and the amount of forest time we choose to spend with family and friends who are important to us.Knowledge and CareerUnderstanding that there is an entire group of problems that are known as psychophysilogical disorders that very much result or are worsened by stress (Feldman, 2009, p.421) can help us to realize that these are very real medical problems that are influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties Feldman, 2009, p.421). Having gained some basic knowledge of the different aspects of what can cause stress in our lives such as work, environment, social demands, etc. can help us manage our lives and careers in a way that will help us to achieve our goals, maintain healthy relationships, succeed at our jobs, and maintain a healthy life style. According to Feldman (2009) our relationship with others can help us deal with our stress.The social support we can establish can help us to lower our stress level and the support we show others can help them as well. Coping with the daily stressors we face, and doing so as a member of a group of family, friends, coworkers, or neighbors can help us to maintain a healthy level of stress and will certainly reduce the risk of health problems associated with major stress in our life. This will in turn help us to be successful in our careers because we will achieve a healthy balance of work goals, family goals , community commitment, and a sense of well being.

The Causes of the Popularity of Video Games Essay Example for Free

The Causes of the Popularity of Video Games EssaySince the introduction of videogames to the public in the 1970s (Herman, et al 2002), it has mother a popular form of entertainment, both outside and at home, for children and adults a similar. The first successful video game, Pong, was so popular that game machines reportedly broke down due to excessive numbers of quarters inserted into the coin slots (Herman, et al 2002).Through the decades, its appeal never seemed to wane, as more(prenominal) gaming systems argon developed and marketed and dismantle more games created and published. The popularity of videogames never ceases to expand, and in the recent years, it has seemed to grow to in the buff heights, attracting dismantle adults who once considered videogames as mere childrens playthings, and females who did not play videogames because they atomic number 18 for boys. Advancements in technology, developments in gameplay and content, and the experience are the factors th at the popularity of videogames mostly owes itself to.Technological advancements are on the move, faster than they drive home been in the past decades. Computers are gaining wider acceptance in the home and in the workplace, aiding in tasks such as writing and research, database management, and up to now education. Almost every home today has at least one computer under its roof. This increase in usage of computers offer upd game developers a window to a larger market. This was impossible back then, as computers were generally thought of as belonging to the workplace, and videogames are not meant to be played in offices. As computer technology improves, game developers can create better, more realistic graphics, longer games, and expansive gameplay, which attract even the most casual of computer users.However, PC games generally nourish a more limited scope in terms of genre and gameplaymost games for PCs are either First-Person Shooters (FPS) or strategy games (examples are Co unter-Strike and Warcraft, respectively) Thankfully, due to these same advances in computer technology, electronics firms like Sony and Microsoft are able to develop standalone videogame consoles like the PlayStation and the Xbox, which become faster, better, and more powerful with each incarnation.These consoles compensate for where the PC lacksit provides an even wider range of games available, and generally perform better as game systems than the PC, and this does much to attract an even larger audience of gamers. Portable game systems like the Nintendo DS and Sony PlayStation Portable introduced the idea of games on-the-go, which enables players to take the games out of their homes and bring them practically everywhereuseful in passing the time during road travel or waiting in line, or even during school breaks. These consoles, naturally, are crafted for people always on the move. Technology created an opportunity for videogames to become easily available and more popular.Anothe r factor that helped videogames become a favorite hobby of many people is developments in gameplay, genre, and content. In its early forms, videogames are so simple that they become old in only a matter of days or even hours. The introduction of the high score system alleviated this somewhat, making even games like Pong playable over and over, with the goal of beating the other individuals score. However, even this will prove to be insufficient ulterior on. Developers explored other types of games, and soon a multitude of different games with different play styles were born.Today, there are many games a player can choose fromincluding from platformers (like the super Mario games), role-playing games (Diablo, Ultima), strategy games (Warcraft), fighting games (Street Fighter), and even educational games (Brain Age), among many others. These new genres made videogames attractive to different markets of different ages and interests. Even girls, who previously did not play videogames , have become attached to games like Dance Dance Revolution, because of their new, unisex appeal, and its health benefits, due to the game requiring actual physical endurance..Adults, who used to shun videogames because they were associated with children, now have no excuse to not play videogames because there are games so challenging that only adults can fully appreciate them. There are excessively games catering specifically to adults nowadays, with additional violence and risqu themes (Grand Theft Auto). This expansion of gameplay types, genres, and content enabled game companies to pierce through almost every market segment, and each person will most likely find a game suited to his or her own personal skills and interests.The experience of playing videogames is something that cannot be found in many pursuances, and videogames have become popular because of this characteristic. In write up-driven games, for instance, gamers are not only treated to a fun, challenging game, the y are also presented an engrossing story which rivals even those of best-selling novels. Multiplayer games pit players against each other in matches of skill or reflexes, depending on the game, and there is much enjoyment to be found competing against another(prenominal) player in ones favorite game.Teamwork, leadership, and situational social interaction, previously found only in team-based sports games, can now be experienced in computer games in the form of multiplayer online role-playing games, where gamers from around the globe form parties striving together to complete an in-game quest or to find a rare item. Videogames provide an enriching, and sometimes even educational, and extremely unique experience, which they will keep coming back to time and again.The popularity of videogames and computer games will never decline, and will perhaps even increase in the future years, because of increasing technological developments, their wide-range appeal, and the sheer experience of pl aying them. They have made available mind-bending challenges, a great pastime for one or for many, and countless hours of fun and excitement.Works CitedHerman, Leonard, et al. The History of Video Games. Gamespot.5 February 2002. 6 June 2007 http//www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/hov/.

John Updikes a & P Is a Coming of Age Story Essay Example for Free

John Updikes a P Is a Coming of Age Story EssayJohn Updikes short story, A P is some a 19-year-old boy, Sammy, and his short but decisive transformation from a carefree teenager to a grown man with the consequences of his actions weighing heavy on him in the end. On an some otherwise ordinary day, the course of Sammys career is changed by an out of the ordinary experience which challenges him and compels him to make a rash decision that is found on what he knows in his heart is right for him. Sammy tells the story as if it is just another day while the life-changing event unfolds in a trend of minutes. He gives insight almost the town by giving short character descriptions that are revealing, not only of each character, but also of Sammys feelings about the town, the people in it, and his personal perspective on the life that he is living there. Although the character descriptions paint a negative picture, the negativity has more to do with Sammys thought of living in th is town with these characters for much more of his young life.It is clear that Sammy is more than ready to move on, beyond where his life is now. Sammy offers few facts about himself other than that he is 19 and lives with his parents in a small, conservative, New England town. Sammy points out that the town is not far from the location of the capital of Oregon witch-hunts and burnings in centuries past. The elusion to Salem leaves an image of a lingering puritanical cloud over the town and its people. The story takes place in the A P grocery store in the heart of the downtown area where Sammy works as a checkout clerk. Sammys co-worker, Stokes, is 22 years old and married with two children. Stokes station in life represents a lifestyle that is not out of reach for Sammy, but certainly not the lifestyle that Sammy desires for his life although it is not clear even to Sammy what exactly the lifestyle that he desires is. Sammys boss, Mr. Lengel, who is a conservative and outspoken m an, is a Sunday school teacher and the manager of the A P. Mr. Lengel is the living image of everything that Sammy does not ever inadequacy to be.The customer that Sammy refers to as the cash-register-watchers and a witch (560) is a character that epitomizes Sammys disdain for the attitude of the usual customer that comes through his check out line on a daily basis, as well as the entire citizenry of his small hometown. The life-altering event begins to unfold in the very first line of the story. In walks these three girls in nothing but bathing suites (560). The very first characters who are introduced in the story are everything that is not acceptable in this basal conservative town, although the three girls bring with them a burst of pure innocent sunshine. Everyone in the store gawks at the three girls as if they have never seen a girl in a bathing suit. The fact is that they probably had never seen a girl in a bathing suit anywhere other than a place to swim which emphasizes that this is an ultra conservative town with puritanical attitudes. Sammy and Stokes are very preoccupied with the sight of the girls and they enjoy every second of it.Mr. Lengle, who doesnt drop that much (563) is fully aware of the enjoyment that Sammy and Stokes are having. Mr. Lengle insults the girls by telling them that they are not decently dressed. In the girls minds, uncluttered by the collective tyrannous attitude that is the norm in the store, they are decent and see nothing wrong with their appearance. At this point, Sammy feels embarrassment for the girls and at the same time realizes that he is discussion section of their embarrassment, because he is a part of the collective puritanical attitude. He also realizes that this is a turning point for him. Sammy has arrived at a cross road in his young life and he realizes that if he is ever going to become what he sees for himself in his future, and if he is ever going to reach what he sincerely yours desires in his li fe, he must make a decision.He must decide to break free from the collective attitude or remain a part of it. Sammy makes the decision to break free from the puritanical and oppressive attitude of all of the generations before him. Sammy quits his job and he does it while the girls are til now in the store hoping that the girls will take notice that he does not have the same attitude and moral judgment of them and that he does not forgive it.He hopes that the girls will see him as their hero. As Sammy takes off his A P apron and bow tie, he is shedding the old puritanical views and attitudes. As he walks out of the store, he embraces his newfound freedom and coming of age, although he also realizes that his parents will not be pleased. Sammy has known for some time that this is what he would eventually do, and this was the day, because the three girls provided a good reason and the opportunity for Sammy to assert himself, to become his own person with his own perspective, values, morals, beliefs and attitudes.Works CitedUpdike, John. A P. The Compact Bedford cosmos to Literature. Ed. Michael Meyer. 8th ed. Boston Bedford/St. Martins, 2009. 560-64.

Theories and a biopsychology of addiction

Theories and a biopsychology of habituationThe biopsychology of dependence examines the interaction of biological aspects associated with addictive behaviors. The word colony comes from the Latin verb addicere meaning to enslave (Yucel, Lubman, Solowij, Brewer, 2007). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, fourthly Edition-Text Revision identifies do do mediciness addiction as a dependence syndrome with essential features of a lack of control over drug determination despite of import drug-related problems (Kranzler Li, 2008).The prevalence and problems associated with drug addiction cost an estimated $524 billion a year, including health c ar, productivity loss, crime, incarceration, and drug enforcement (NIDA, 2009). Advanced research confirms that addiction is a disease because it alters the soul. It shares vernacular attributes with other chronic diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes. The underlying concept is that there is a disruption in healthy procedure that results in serious, harmful consequences, although treatable, that domiciliate potentially last a life cartridge clip (NIDA, 2009). Recreational drug use usually begins in adolescents at a stage in development most vulnerable to executive director functioning impairment. Executive functioning shams decision making, judgments, and emotional regulation. Brown, et al. (2008) put together an add in drinking during the age pas de deux between 16 to 20 years that fuels neurological damage and social impairments. Beckson (2005) reported an increase in adolescent drug use. Prevention of drug addiction gather ups to start during adolescents because it usually begins during this stage in development.The goal of this paper is to explore multiple factors related to the biopsychology of addiction, including the molecular level of synaptic neuron communication, neurotransmitters, brain anatomy, drugs of abuse, relapse, and long-term core groups of addiction. The genetic and environmenta l influences along with stress play earthshaking purposes in drug addiction.Theories of addiction exist with a growing parallelism among experts that the Incentive sensitization Theory of Addiction provides the best explanation. Robinson and Berridge (2003) describe several theories.Opponent Process Theory of AddictionThe first-year theory described by Robinson and Berridge (2003), is the Opponent Process Theory of Addiction representing the traditional view of addiction. Pinel (2009) refers to this theory as the Physical-dependence Theories of Addiction. Initially drugs are taken for the positive feelings, but gradually name tolerance and dependence to the drug. Withdrawal symptoms begin and compulsive drug cravings take over. medicate use continues in an effort to avoid electro blackball withdrawal symptoms and accomplish the pleasurable makes again. Other names for this traditional theory of addiction include pleasance- inconvenience oneself, positive- prohibit reinforce ment, opponent process, hedonic homeostasis, hedonic dysregulation, and reward allostasis (Robinson Berridge, 2003). Limitations exist with this theory because non all drugs, such as heroin, produce serious withdrawal symptoms. A major argument against this theory is that after a period of abstinence the outrank of relapse remains high despite the lack of withdrawal symptoms.Positive- motivator Theory of AddictionA nonher theory described by Robinson and Berridge (2003) involves aberrant encyclopedism suggesting that drugs farm a strong colligateion to natural reward centers based on data through classical conditioning. Pinel (2009) refers to this theory as the Positive-incentive theories of drug addiction. Explicit skill as a subcategory of aberrant learning describes the learning process through declarative associations at a conscious level between actions and outcome. Explicit learning also involves the declarative yellive relationships between environmental cues and ex pectation or anticipation of rewards, such as drugs. Declarative learning does not sufficiently pardon the mutation from recreational drug use to drug addiction. Addicts do not report exaggerated declarative memories or expectations of drug fun because they know the pleasure gained is not worth the consequences suffered (Robinson and Berridge, 2003).Implicit learning as a second subcategory of aberrant learning describes the unconscious procedural learning that occurs automatically by unification a stimulus and response. Drug use constrains an automatic response through the corticostriatal loops operating through the dorsal striatum (Robinson Berridge, 2003). The aberrant learning theory does not hold up under scrutiny either because implicit learning does not actually generate an automatic response, such as tying your shoe, because it is indispensability that motivates the continuation of drug use and drives the cycle of addiction.Incentive Sensitization Theory of AddictionT he Incentive Sensitization Theory of Addiction best explains the transition from drug use to drug addiction. harmonize to Robinson and Berridge (2008), the theory states that repeated drug use diversitys brain cells and brain neural circuitry creating a hypersensitivity to repeated drug use and associated drug cues. Incentive sensitization generates a pathological motivation or wanting of drugs that last for years, even after abstinence. The wanting of drugs may be implicit by an unconscious wanting or explicit by a conscious craving. The addicts focus on drugs is created from an interaction between incentive salience mechanisms with associated learning mechanisms. morbid motivation generated from sensitization of brain circuits stems from a Pavlovian conditioned incentive or motivational process, cognise as incentive sensitization. Associative learning can trigger the motivation for drugs through incentive attributes, such as within the context of associated drug experiences and interactions. The pathological motivation drives the addict to seek and obtain drugs at any cost. However, the stimulus-response learned association does not fully explain the core problem of addiction.Damage or dysfunction in cortical regions creates changes in executive functioning resulting in impairments. These impairments play an important mapping in the addicts poor choices about drugs coupled with pathological incentive motivation for drugs triggered through incentive sensitization. Sensitization itemally refers to the increase in drug effect caused by repeated drug use. Incentive sensitization is essence of the theory. Engagement of brain incentive or reward systems, include the mesotelencephalic dopamine systems. It is the hypersensitivity in the motivation circuitry that contributes mostly to the addictive wanting of drugs.Evidence in favor of the incentive sensitization from past studies includes tercet features of incentive stimulus Pavlovian conditioned approach to behavior, Pavlovian instrumental transfers, and conditioned reinforcement. The sensitization related changes in the brain are important for the transition from casual to compulsive drug use. Changes in the brain include a much large(p)r increase in the density of dendritic spines on mass medium spiny neurons in the core of the nucleus accumbens. It relates to development of psychomotor sensitization. Studies further auspicate that the neural changes underlying sensitization may be sufficient to enhance subsequent addict-like behaviors. The essential factor in addiction is neural sensitization.Nature versus NurtureOn the one hand, a genetic predisposition toward drug addiction come to the fores evident for a substantial number of individuals. Researchers are continuing to identify specific genes related to drug addiction. The use of Quantitative Trait Locus social occasion contributes to identify specific genes for the risk and protection against addictive behavior (Crabbe, 200 2).On the other hand, the learning hypothesis suggest drugs promote the learning of strong stimulus-response habits prima(p) to compulsive behavior paired with rituals involved in consuming drugs (Robinson Berridge, 2008). Associative learning occurs in drug addiction through Pavlovian conditioning. The motivation for drugs becomes incentive sensitive when encountering familiar associations within the context and surrounding of the drug use, friends, location, and the like.Churchland (2004) argues that everything we know is the result of some(prenominal) our genetic makeup and our environmental experiences. Science has shown that development depends upon both genes and experience. Genes produce the hardware and experience provides the software. Learning occurs through genetic unfolding that generates changes in cells through memory systems of learning experiences constructed from environmental experiences. Our brain neuromodulators act upon synapses and become strengthened with r epeated exposure that provides the foundation for learning.According to Kranzler and Li (2008) drug addiction stems from a combination of genetic, environmental, social, and psychological factors. The study of addiction involves multiple disciplines, including neuroscience, epidemiology, genetics, molecular biology, pharmacology, psychology, psychiatry, and sociology. It is not a matter of nature versus nurture, but more accurately nature and nurture.It is well known that addiction stems from a genetic predisposition and environmental stress and influences. Li, Mao, and Wei (2008) report that an estimated 40% to 60% of genetic factors appear responsible for drug addiction and the remaining percentage of factors relate to environmental factors. Genes and common piece of lands appear to underlie drug addictions. In a study conducted by Li, Mao, and Wei (2008), an extensive review of the genetic research associated with drug addiction resulted in the creation of the Knowledgebase of A ddiction-Related Genes (KARG). The KARG is the first database of a bioinformatic compilation of genetic research on addiction. Through statistical analysis of the database, the authors found five common pathways in addiction, including neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, long-term potentiation, GnRH sign pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, and Gap junctions. Advances in science from the use of new technology, such as tillingarray and proteomics, provide new avenues in studying the underlying pathways and genetic composition of addiction and how addiction forms from environmental influences.Brain CommunicationChemical messengers called neurotransmitters carry information across tiny spaces, called synapses that exist between neurons (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberts, 2008). The brain communicates through electrical and chemical substance signals transmitted from neuron to neuron. A neuron represents the brains communication network. A neurotransmitter is released from one neuron i nto the synapse within 20 to 50 nanometers of the receiving neuron (Lovinger, 2008). The release neuron is referred to as presynaptic neuron and has at the tip of its axon terminals small pockets known as vesicles. These vesicles contain neurotransmitters that release molecules when activated by the action potential stimulated by the presynaptic neuron. The neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic gap between the two neurons. The post-synaptic neuron receives the neurotransmitter and binds it to the receptor site.According to Lovinger (2008) two major categories of neurotransmitter receptors, include the ligand-gated ion channel (LGIC) receptors and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). The LGIC produces an excitatory or an cut backory reaction depending on the action potential. The GPCRs represent proteins that bind neurotransmitter molecules and activate intercellular reactions. Once the neurotransmitter is released it becomes rapidly removed by neurotransmitter transporter s. The neurotransmitter transporters are housed on the surface of the neurons cell tissue layer and rapidly retrieve the neurotransmitter pulling it inside the neuron. The uptake reloads the neurotransmitter into vesicles and the cycle repeats.Other brain chemicals exist, such as neurotrophins and steroid hormones. Lovington (2008) describes neurotrophins as peptides or amino acids secreted from contrasting neuron structures, such as axon terminals and dendrites. Neurotrophins support neurons and assist in synaptic plasticity and neuron survival. Many are located within the of import outflowy system and the neural mechanisms that contribute to addiction (Lovinger, 2008). Steroid hormones represent small molecules that assist with intercellular communication. These hormones are found throughout the of import nervous system as well.Lovinger (2008) further describes agonist as molecules that bind to and activate receptors. Antagonists also bind to neurotransmitter receptor sites b y competing and blocking receptor activation. Many molecules make as neurotransmitters, such as the amino acids, glutamate, and glycine. Histamines and different peptides also act as neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters play a significant role in addiction.NeurotransmittersFitzell (2007) defines neurotransmitters as molecules in the brain that transmit chemical reactions in order for neural communication to occur. There are approximately 100 billons neurons in the brain. Neurons release neurotransmitters from one neuron to the next via a presynapitc cheek terminal and receptor site at the synapse. The releasing of a neurotransmitter either triggers a message to other neurons in a chain reaction or a message to disengage signals. There are several neurotransmitters that activate specific receptors site referred to as fitting a key into a lock (Fitzell, 2007). The neurotransmitters include noradrenaline (norepinephrine), and adrenaline (epinephrine), acetylcholine, GABA, glutamate, dopamine, serotonin, opioids and other peptides, and endocannbinoids. Endorphins and enkephalins produce natural opiates in the brain related to intense pleasure.Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) has a stimulating effect on the brain. It is responsible for regulating the heart, breathing, body temperature, and blood hale. It also may play a role in hallucinations and depression (Fitzell, 2007). epinephrin (epinephrine) controls paranoia and the fight-or-flight response. It is also responsible for our appetite and feelings of thirst (Fitzell, 2007). Acetylcholine is responsible for muscle coordination, nerve cells, memory, and is involved in the transmission of nerve impulses in the body (Fitzell, 2007). It has a significant role in reaction to stress.GABA is found throughout the brain and in numerous sensory neurons (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). It functions as a regulator of transmitting nerve signals, and it acts on receptor sites, including GPCR, by functioning as an i nhibitor. Activation of the receptor sites prohibit the release of neurotransmitters. Ethanol acts as an excitatory for the release of GABA and has a role in alcoholic drink intoxication and contributes to the brains hyperexcitable during alcohol withdrawal. Opiods, cannabinoids, and alcohol all act on GABA through the same brain regions.Glutamate functions as a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the lower brain region (Clapp, Bhave, Hoffman, 2008). It serves most brain neurons and is found throughout the brain. Two receptors, AMPA and NMDA, appear to be involved in learning and memory. Acute alcohol consumption inhibits the release of glutamate and appears to play a role in inhibiting synaptic plasticity and impairment of memory (Lovinger, 2008). Gass and Olive (2008) canvas glutamates influence on drug addiction. Studies found that all drugs of abuse utilize glutamate transmissions producing a long-term neuroplasticity in the brain. Glutamate contributes to compulsive drug-se eking behavior and drug-associated memories.Dopamine serves as the most significant neurotransmitter in the brain. It is responsible for controlling our moods, energy, and feelings of pleasure (Fizell, 2007). Dopamine influences brain mechanisms of reward, evaluation of environmental stimuli, general behavioral activity level, and some brain disorders. According to Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, and Roberto (2008), dopamine becomes pervasive throughout the brain and is produced by only a few neurons. It is considered a pure neuromodulator because it becomes activated only by GPCRs. There are five dopamine receptor sites, D1 through D5. Half of the neurons connect to the substantia nigra pars reticulate forming the direct pathway to activating the cerebral mantle (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). The other half connect to the globus pallidus internal segmane forming the indirect pathway to slow down cortical output. Dopamine controls performance of action, including the intoxicatio n from alcohol and other drugs (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008).Many drugs target dopamine transmission, and dopamine plays a significant role with all drugs. Cocaine, amphetamine and other stimulant drugs either block or reverse the action of the dopamine transporter (Lovington, 2008). As a result, the level of dopamine in the synapse increases. Research shows that interference with dopamine transmission generates an intoxicating and addictive effect with drugs and alcohol Nicotine and alcohol stimulate dopamine. morphine and other opiates slow GABA activity and indirectly increase the activity of dopamine. It also contributes to learning environmental cues in relation to the context of drug use that encourages drug and alcohol use.Fitzell (2007) describes serotonins role in the brain as relating to the five senses, sleep, aggressive behavior, eating, and hunger. Its release brings about a sense of calm, happiness, peace, satisfaction, signals of fullness, and reduced appe tite. A slack of serotonin or blockage in the brain cells results in aggression and violent behavior. Low levels of serotonin are associated with depression and increased appetite. Serotonin is a very powerful mood enhancer and appetite regulator located in the base of the brain (Fitzell, 2007).According to Lovinger (2008), neurons connect to other neurons through the central nervous system, including the cerebral pallium and other forebrain structures. Serotonin influences sensations related to environmental stimuli, perception, learning and memory, and sleep and mood. Serotonin activity involves 15 CPCRs that either increase or decrease neuron output. It is the target of psychoactive drugs, such as LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin that serve as agonists of serotonin. Amphetamines, such as MDMA also known as ecstasy, interfere with serotonin transporters and increase serotonin levels. It is suspected that the effect may result in sensory-enhanced effects. Alcohol appears to cause a reduction of serotonin uptake.Opioids and other peptides contribute to the brains communication by decreasing excitatory glutamate and inhibitory GABA at the cell level (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). However, GABA continues to have an excitatory effect throughout the brain producing the pain-relieving effect of opioids as well as opioid dependence. Peptides help neuromodulation of the brain through GPCRs. These peptides serve as agonists to receptor sites for morphine, heroine, and other opiate drugs (Lovington, 2008). Three opiate receptors of sizeableness include mu-type, delta-type, and kappa-type (Befort, et al., 2008). Reduction in opioid peptide actions interfere with promoting an increase in dopamine. Lovinger (2008) describes another hormone of particular importance, the corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH communicates signals of stress, mood, and changes in bodily functions. CRH and its receptors play a role in stress, drug addiction, and relapse. The op ioid peptides, endorphins, and enkephalins affect mood, produce intense feelings of pleasure, and can reduce and relieve pain. Endorphins also help in managing stress. Enkephalins help the body fight pain (Fitzell, 2007). Wand (2008) describes a the stress response as involving a glucocorticoid response generated from the hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal (HPA), activation of peptides corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), and activation of the sympathetic nervous system releasing epinephrine and nonrepinephrine.Endocannabinoids (endogenously formed cannabinoids) and other lipid-derived neuromodulators are involved in synaptic communication and acute reinforcing effects of drugs (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). Lovinger (2008) describes the receptor site CB1 linked to GPCR as functioning to inhibit the release of neurotransmitters. CB1 acts as agonists and influences both inhibitory and excitatory synaptic transmissions (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). As a result, a decrease in several neurotransmitters occurs, including GABA and glutamate. A long-term synaptic depression may occur produced by retrograde endocannabinoid signaling. A consequence of this occurrence plays a key role in learning and memory and associated addiction (Lovinger, 2008).Brain Anatomy of AddictionThe brain attempts to counteract the chemical changes caused by drug addiction. The process of neuroadaption or neuromodulation strives to reinstate homeostasis in the brain. Drug addiction influences all aspects of the brain with several significant regions serving more dominant roles.The mesotelencephalic dopamine system is a diffuse pathway consisting of dopamine neurons associated with pleasure (Pinel, 1998). Its cell bodies are connected to two structures in the midbrain tegmentum substantia nigra or the ventral tegmental airfield. The axons of these two structures extend into different structures in the telencephalic sites. These structures include frontage cortex, striat um, septum, cingulated cortex, amygdala, and nucleus accumbens. The mesotelencephalic dopamine system is associated with motivation of behaviors and self-administering addictive drugs, sexual behavior, and eating (Pinel, 1998)The substania nigra is a midbrain nucleus of the tegmentum and contains cell bodies of many of the neurons of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system. Its dopaminergic neurons arouse in the striatum (Pinel, 1998). The nigrostriatal pathway is a dopaminergic tract from the substantia nigra to the striatum. The striatum is composed of the caudate and putamen and serves as the terminal of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway. The ventral tegmental area is located median(a) to the substania nigra and contains cell body of many neurons in the mesotelecephalic dopamine system (Pinel, 1998).The nucleus accumbens is a nucleus located between the striatum and the basal forebrain. It is a major terminal in the mesotelencephalic dopamine system. It plays a critical role in the experience of pleasure (Pinel, 1998).Koob and Simon (2009) indicate that the mesocorticolimbic pathway is the brain circuit that transmits dopamine in the rewarding effects of alcohol and other drugs. The mesocorticolimbic dopamine system represents the reward system in the brain. Neural inputs and outputs interact with the dopamine projections from the ventral tegmental area to the basal forebrain (Koob Simon, 2009 Ikemoto, 2007).Pinel (1998) describes the prefrontal cortex as the large area of the frontal cortex anterior to the principal(a) and secondary motor cortex. It consists of three large areas dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex (Pinel, 1998). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is the large area on the lateral surface of the prefrontal lobes and plays a role in memory for temporal sequence of events but not the actual events, response sequencing, inhibiting incorrect but previously correct responses, developing and fo llowing plans of action, and creative thinking. Pinel (1998), indicates that the orbitofrontal cortex is the large area of prefrontal cortex on its anterior pole and inferior surface. Damage to the orbitofrontal cortex results in marked personality changes, an inability to inhibit inappropriate behaviors, and influences social behaviors. The medial prefrontal cortex is the area of the prefrontal cortex on the medial surface of the prefrontal lobes that when damaged, produces a blunting affect (Pinel, 1998).corpus amygdaloideum is a major structure in the limbic system. It is an almond-shaped nucleus of the anterior temporal lobe. The central nucleus of the amygdala has the highest density of enkephalins. Enkephalins are found in the cell bodies of GABA neurons, the most abundant type of neuron in the nucleus of the amygdala (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). The amygdala is responsible for the fight or flight emotional reaction.The all-inclusive amygdala signifies brain stru ctures located near the front of the lower brain region, referred to as the basal forebrain (Befort, et al.). The extended amygdala is comprised of a number of structures, including the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), and the bed nucleus of stria terminals (BNST). It plays a role in relation to the acute reinforcing effects of drugs and the negative effects of compulsive drug use and reward. The CeA consists mostly of GABA as inhibitory neurons with neuron connections or project to the brainstem or BNST. It is considered the gate that controls information through the intra-amygdaloidal circuits. Befort, et al. (2008) describes the central extended amygdala (EAc) as a network formed by the central amygdala and the BNST controls. It plays a significant role in drug cravings, drug-seeking behaviors, drug rewards, and drug dependence.Hippocampus is the allocortical limbic system structure of the medial temporal lobes and extends from the amygdala at its anterior end to the cingulated cortex and trigonum cerebrale at itsposterior end (Pinel, 1998). The basolateral amygdala mediates motivational effects of drug use and the context associated with drug use in forming emotional memories (Koob, 2009). It plays a major role in learning and memory, particularly in relation to associated drug behaviors.Feltenstein and See (2008) provide a depiction of the brain anatomy and drug related connections in the mesocorticolimbic system. Dopamine projects from cell bodies in the VTA and connect to limbic structures via the mesolimbic pathway (amaygdala, ventral pallidum, hippocampus, and NAcc, and cortical areas (mesocortical pathway, including the prefrontal cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex, and the anterior cingulated swirl) (Feltenstein See, 2008) Ikemoto, 2007). The NAcc and ventral pallidum serve as the primary effects of drug abuse. The amygdala and hippocampus serve a role in learning as it relates to the process of addiction. The amy gdala and ventral hippocampus impact learning in discrete stimulus-response associations. The amygdala and dorsal hippocampus impact learning through stimulus-to-stimulus associations important in contextual learning.The prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate gyrus regulate emotional responses, cognitive control, and executive functioning (Feltenstein See, 2008). Feltenstein See (2008) further indicated that repeated drug exposure leads to neuroadaptions at the cellular level of the prefrontal NAcc glutamatergic pathway that contributes to the persistent addictive behaviors, including diminished cognitive control and hyper-responsiveness to drug-associated stimuli. The mesolimbic pathway is involved in the acute reinforcing effects of drugs and various conditioned responses related to drug cravings and relapse. wheel around of AddictionDrug addiction forms through progressive stages of drug use, impulsivity, and compulsion. Addiction begins with the choice to use drugs for a variety of reasons, such as peer pressure or curiosity however not everyone who uses drugs develop an addiction. As the drug begins to change neuron interactions, the brain develops neuroadaptive reactions to the drugs invasion. Drug use gradually shifts from recreational drug use to a compulsive drug need based on changes in the brain circuitry. Everitt, et al. (2008) discovered that low levels of dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens predict the propensity to escalate cocaine intake and the shift to compulsive drug-seeking and drug addiction.Kobb (2009) describes three stages of addiction preoccupation/anticipation, binge intoxication, and withdrawal/negative effect. The three stages break into each other, become intensified over time, and shift from positive reinforcement to negative reinforcement (Kobb, 2009). Drug use starts with experimentation and enjoying the pleasurable attributes of the drug. In time the addict focuses more on obtaining and using drugs that begins to shift impulsivity to tolerance and cravings in the drug relationship. As the drug begins to control the addict, the positive emotions begin to shift to negative emotions. The addict requires continued use of the drug in order to avoid negative reinforcement and to achieve positive reinforcement. The addict shifts into a compulsive need for the drug.According to Koob and Simon (2009), the binge/intoxication stage of addiction involves the nucleus accumbens-amygdala reward system, dopamine inputs from the ventral tegmental area, local opioid peptide circuits, and opioid peptide inputs in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. The stage of negative withdrawal involves a decrease in function of the reward system and the brain stress neurocircuitry. The preoccupation/anticipation (craving) stage involves key afferent projections to the extended amygdala and nucleus accumbens, specifically the prefrontal cortex (for drug-induced reinstatement), and the basolateral amygdala (for cue-induced reinstatement). Compulsvie drug-seeking behavior appears driven by ventral striatal-ventral pallidalthalamic-cortical loops.In particular, the orbitofrontal cortex in the prefrontal cortex area influences impulsivity and compulsivity in drug addiction (Torregrossa, Quinn, Taylor, 2008). It is also critical in decision making and response selection. The orbitofrontal cortex influences impulsivity in three specific ways delaying gratification, inability to inhibit strengthened motor responses, and an inability to reflect on potential consequences of action (Torregrossa, Quinn, Taylor, 2008). Schoenbaum and Shaham (2008) concur with the concept of an altered orbitofrontal cortex in drug addicts with a lasting decline in plasticity or the ability to encode new information.Drugs Classifications Commonly AbusedDrugs commonly abused change the brains chemistry by interfering with the neurotransmitters and receptor sites. Different classes of drugs appear to affe ct different receptors either through overproducing a neurotransmitter or blocking the production of a neurotransmitter. All drugs of abuse share enhancement in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine activity, although at different levels.DepressantsEthanol is the primary drug in alcochol. It changes serotonin levels, and acts as a substitute for endorphins. According to Frezell (2007), behaviors that occur when under the influence of the drug include sleepiness, possible violence or aggression, depression, and a dulling of psychological pain. After the effect of alcohol wears off, sleep disturbance, depression, lack of endorphins to relieve normal pain, and cravings for more alcohol occur in reaction to the brains reduction in producing endorphins. Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, and Roberto (2008), indicate that alcohol increases the inhibitory effect of GABA and decreases the excitatory action of glutamate. GABA is involved with the intoxication effects of alcohol and the long-term effects, incl uding tolerance and dependence. The CeA adapts to the changes as alcohol dependence forms. Feltenstein and See (2008) indicate that ethanol interacts with a wide variety o